Figure 2
Early and Long Opioid Prescription (Adjusted Rates) by First Provider Seen for Low Back Pain. Margins refer to the marginal effect (dy/dx) at the means reported from the second stage (probit) of a two-stage residual inclusion instrumental variable approach where the numerator (dy) is the change in early opioid or long opioid prescriptions and the denominator (dx) is the initial choice of provider. Models control for gender, age, co-morbidity, insurance status, rurality, county-level economic measures, and state limitations/provisions to physical therapy access; SE = standard error (robust); PT = physical therapist; Chiro = chiropractor; ACU = Acupuncturist; APRN = advanced practice registered nurse; PCP = primary care physicians; PM&R = physical medicine and rehabilitation physician; Ortho = orthopedist; EM = emergency medicine physician; “Other” category results available upon request