Table 2
Demographic and Clinical Characteristics of the Final Cohort (N = 40,929)
CT, computed tomography; ED, emergency department; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; NA, not applicable; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
aPrimary long-term opioid use definition.
bSensitivity long-term opioid use definition.Characteristics Frequency % Age, mean (standard deviation) 41.45 (12.61) NA
Age categories 18-24 y 5047 12.33 25-29 y 4195 10.25 30-39 y 9659 23.60 40-49 y 9484 23.17 50-59 y 9834 24.03 60-63 y 2710 6.62 Sex Male 14 531 35.50 Female 26 398 64.50 Payer type Commercial 32 720 79.94 Medicaid 8152 19.92 Both commercial and Medicaid 57 0.14 Mental health disorders Mood disorders 10 706 26.16 Schizophrenia 1123 2.74 Anxiety disorders 10 816 26.43 Personality disorders 608 1.49 Acute reaction to stress 361 0.88 Adjustment disorders 1362 3.33 Substance use disorder Tobacco use disorder 8542 20.87 Opioid misuse disorder 428 1.05 Other substance use disorder 2123 5.19 Obesity 8565 20.93 Diabetes 6712 16.40 Charlson Comorbidity Index 0 29 778 72.76 1 7606 18.58 2 1866 4.56 ≥3 1679 4.10 Year of index diagnosis 2013 4582 11.19 2014 13 022 31.82 2015 10 453 25.54 2016 8721 21.31 2017 4151 10.14
Opioid use within the first 14 d of index date No opioid use 28 747 70.24 Any opioid use 12 182 29.76 Opioid use in the 1-y follow-up No opioid use 18 686 45.65 Any opioid use 22 243 54.35 Long-term opioid usea 1805 4.41 Long-term opioid useb 1951 4.77 Days’ supply among opioid users in the 1-y follow-up period 1-2 d 1863 8.38 3-4 d 5382 24.20 5-7 d 6963 31.30 8-10 d 3610 16.23 11-14 d 479 2.15 15-21 d 1658 7.45 ≥22 d 2288 10.29 Type of opioid among opioid users in the 1-y follow-up period Schedule II long acting 51 0.23 Other Schedule II short acting 218 0.98 Oxycodone short acting 1766 7.94 Hydrocodone short acting 10 894 48.98 Schedule III-IV and nalbuphine 2853 12.83 Tramadol 6461 29.05 Pharmacologic use in the baseline period NSAIDs 7619 18.62 Benzodiazepines 5529 13.51 Skeletal muscle relaxant 3585 8.76 Oral steroids 4994 12.20 Lumbar procedures (within the first 30 d of index date) Lumbar radiographs 14 085 34.41 Lumbar advanced imaging (MRI or CT) 3902 0.53 Lumbar injections 301 0.74 Physician office visits with low back pain diagnosis (within the first 30 d of index date) 36 041 88.06 ED visit with low back pain diagnosis (within the first 30 d of index date) 4719 11.53