Noninvasive Nonpharmacological Treatment for Chronic Pain: A Systematic Review Update (April 16, 2020). Andrea C. Skelly, Ph.D., M.P.H., Roger Chou, M.D., Joseph R. Dettori, Ph.D., M.P.H., M.P.T., Judith A. Turner, Ph.D., et al. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2020 (Apr)

This section was compiled by Frank M. Painter, D.C.
Send all comments or additions to:   Frankp@chiro.org

Appendix B: Included Studies

1. Abbasi M, Dehghani M, Keefe FJ, et al. Spouse-assisted training in pain coping skills and the outcome of multidisciplinary pain management for chronic low back pain treatment: a 1-year randomized controlled trial. Eur J Pain. 2012 Aug;16(7):1033–43. doi: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2011.00097.x. PMID: 22337646

2. Abbott JH, Robertson MC, Chapple C, et al. Manual therapy, exercise therapy, or both, in addition to usual care, for osteoarthritis of the hip or knee: a randomized controlled trial. 1: clinical effectiveness. Osteoarthritis & Cartilage. 2013 Apr;21(4):525–34. doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2012.12.014. PMID: 23313532

3. Ajimsha MS, Daniel B, Chithra S. Effectiveness of myofascial release in the management of chronic low back pain in nursing professionals. J Bodyw Mov Ther. 2014 Apr;18(2):273–81. doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2013.05.007. PMID: 24725797

4. Al Rashoud AS, Abboud RJ, Wang W, et al. Efficacy of low-level laser therapy applied at acupuncture points in knee osteoarthritis: a randomised double-blind comparative trial. Physiotherapy. 2014 Sep;100(3):242–8. doi: 10.1016/j.physio.2013.09.007. PMID: 24418801

5. Alda M, Luciano JV, Andres E, et al. Effectiveness of cognitive behaviour therapy for the treatment of catastrophisation in patients with fibromyalgia: a randomised controlled trial. Arthritis Res Ther. 2011;13(5):R173. doi: 10.1186/ar3496. PMID: 22018333

6. Alfano AP, Taylor AG, Foresman PA, et al. Static magnetic fields for treatment of fibromyalgia: a randomized controlled trial. J Altern Complement Med. 2001 Feb;7(1):53–64

7. Allen KD, Arbeeva L, Callahan LF, et al. Physical therapy vs internet-based exercise training for patients with knee osteoarthritis: results of a randomized controlled trial. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2018 Mar;26(3):383–96. doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2017.12.008. PMID: 29307722.*

8. Altan L, Bingol U, Aykac M, et al. Investigation of the effect of GaAs laser therapy on cervical myofascial pain syndrome. Rheumatol Int. 2005 Jan;25(1):23–7. doi: 10.1007/s00296-003-0396-y. PMID: 14673617

9. Altan L, Korkmaz N, Bingol U, et al. Effect of pilates training on people with fibromyalgia syndrome: a pilot study. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2009 Dec;90(12):1983–8. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2009.06.021. PMID: 19969158

10. Amris K, Waehrens EE, Christensen R, et al. Interdisciplinary rehabilitation of patients with chronic widespread pain: primary endpoint of the randomized, nonblinded, parallel-group IMPROvE trial. Pain. 2014 Jul;155(7):1356–64. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2014.04.012. PMID: 24727345

11. Andersen LL, Jorgensen MB, Blangsted AK, et al. A randomized controlled intervention trial to relieve and prevent neck/shoulder pain. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2008 Jun;40(6):983–90. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181676640. PMID: 18461010

12. Ang DC, Chakr R, Mazzuca S, et al. Cognitive-behavioral therapy attenuates nociceptive responding in patients with fibromyalgia: a pilot study. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2010 May;62(5):618–23. doi: 10.1002/acr.20119

13. Areeudomwong P, Wongrat W, Neammesri N, et al. A randomized controlled trial on the long-term effects of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation training, on pain-related outcomes and back muscle activity, in patients with chronic low back pain. Musculoskeletal Care. 2017 09;15(3):218–29. doi: 10.1002/msc.1165. PMID: 27791345.*

14. Arguisuelas MD, Lison JF, Sanchez-Zuriaga D, et al. Effects of Myofascial Release in Nonspecific Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Spine. 2017 May 01;42(9):627–34. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0000000000001897. PMID: 28441294.*

15. Aslan Telci E, Karaduman A. Effects of three different conservative treatments on pain, disability, quality of life, and mood in patients with cervical spondylosis. Rheumatology International. 2012 Apr;32(4):1033–40. doi: 10.1007/s00296-010-1751-4. PMID: 21246365

16. Assefi NP, Sherman KJ, Jacobsen C, et al. A randomized clinical trial of acupuncture compared with sham acupuncture in fibromyalgia.[Summary for patients in Ann Intern Med. 2005 Jul 5;143(1):I24; PMID: 15998747]. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2005 Jul 5;143(1):10–9. PMID: 15998750

17. Banth S, Ardebil MD. Effectiveness of mindfulness meditation on pain and quality of life of patients with chronic low back pain. Int J Yoga. 2015 Jul-Dec;8(2):128–33. doi: 10.4103/0973-6131.158476. PMID: 26170592

18. Baptista AS, Villela AL, Jones A, et al. Effectiveness of dance in patients with fibromyalgia: a randomized, single-blind, controlled study. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2012 Nov-Dec;30(6 Suppl 74):18–23. Epub 2012 Dec 14

19. Basford JR, Sheffield CG, Harmsen WS. Laser therapy: a randomized, controlled trial of the effects of low-intensity Nd:YAG laser irradiation on musculoskeletal back pain. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999 Jun;80(6):647–52. PMID: 10378490

20. Battisti E, Piazza E, Rigato M, et al. Efficacy and safety of a musically modulated electromagnetic field (TAMMEF) in patients affected by knee osteoarthritis. Clinical & Experimental Rheumatology. 2004 Sep-Oct;22(5):568–72. PMID: 15485009

21. Baumueller E, Winkelmann A, Irnich D, et al. Electromyogram Biofeedback in Patients with Fibromyalgia: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Complementary Medical Research. 2017;24(1):33–9. doi: 10.1159/000454692. PMID: 28192782.*

22. Bendix AE, Bendix T, Haestrup C, et al. A prospective, randomized 5-year follow-up study of functional restoration in chronic low back pain patients. Eur Spine J. 1998;7(2):111–9. PMID: 9629934.

23. Bendix AF, Bendix T, Lund C, et al. Comparison of three intensive programs for chronic low back pain patients: a prospective, randomized, observer-blinded study with one-year follow-up. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1997 Jun;29(2):81–9. PMID: 9198257

24. Bendix AF, Bendix T, Ostenfeld S, et al. Active treatment programs for patients with chronic low back pain: a prospective, randomized, observer-blinded study. Eur Spine J. 1995;4(3):148–52. PMID: 7552649

25. Bendix AF, Bendix T, Vaegter K, et al. Multidisciplinary intensive treatment for chronic low back pain: a randomized, prospective study. Cleve Clin J Med. 1996 Jan-Feb;63(1):62–9. PMID: 8590519

26. Bendix T, Bendix A, Labriola M, et al. Functional restoration versus outpatient physical training in chronic low back pain: a randomized comparative study. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000 Oct 01;25(19):2494–500. PMID: 11013502

27. Bennell KL, Ahamed Y, Jull G, et al. Physical Therapist-Delivered Pain Coping Skills Training and Exercise for Knee Osteoarthritis: Randomized Controlled Trial. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2016 May;68(5):590–602. doi: 10.1002/acr.22744. PMID: 26417720

28. Bennell KL, Hinman RS, Metcalf BR, et al. Efficacy of physiotherapy management of knee joint osteoarthritis: a randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases. 2005 Jun;64(6):906–12. PMID: 15897310

29. Berman BM, Lao L, Langenberg P, et al. Effectiveness of acupuncture as adjunctive therapy in osteoarthritis of the knee: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2004 Dec 21;141(12):901–10. PMID: 15611487

30. Berman BM, Singh BB, Lao L, et al. A randomized trial of acupuncture as an adjunctive therapy in osteoarthritis of the knee. Rheumatology. 1999 Apr;38(4):346–54. PMID: 10378713

31. Beurskens AJ, de Vet HC, Koke AJ, et al. Efficacy of traction for nonspecific low back pain. 12-week and 6-month results of a randomized clinical trial. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1997 Dec 01;22(23):2756–62. PMID: 9431610

32. Birch S, Jamison RN. Controlled trial of Japanese acupuncture for chronic myofascial neck pain: assessment of specific and nonspecific effects of treatment. Clinical Journal of Pain. 1998 Sep;14(3):248–55. PMID: 9758075

33. Blanchard EB, Appelbaum KA, Radnitz CL, et al. Placebo-controlled evaluation of abbreviated progressive muscle relaxation and of relaxation combined with cognitive therapy in the treatment of tension headache. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1990 Apr;58(2):210–5. PMID: 2186066

34. Blodt S, Pach D, Kaster T, et al. Qigong versus exercise therapy for chronic low back pain in adults-a randomized controlled non-inferiority trial. Eur J Pain. 2015 Jan;19(1):123–31. doi: 10.1002/ejp.529. PMID: 24902673

35. Boline PD, Kassak K, Bronfort G, et al. Spinal manipulation vs. amitriptyline for the treatment of chronic tension-type headaches: a randomized clinical trial. J Manipulative Physiol Ther. 1995 Mar-Apr;18(3):148–54. PMID: 7790794

36. Bono F, Salvino D, Mazza MR, et al. The influence of ictal cutaneous allodynia on the response to occipital transcutaneous electrical stimulation in chronic migraine and chronic tension-type headache: a randomized, sham-controlled study. Cephalalgia. 2015 Apr;35(5):389–98. doi: 10.1177/0333102414544909. PMID: 25078717

37. Bramberg EB, Bergstrom G, Jensen I, et al. Effects of yoga, strength training and advice on back pain: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders. 2017 03 29;18(1):132. doi: 10.1186/s12891-017-1497-1. PMID: 28356091.*

38. Brinkhaus B, Witt CM, Jena S, et al. Acupuncture in patients with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med. 2006 Feb 27;166(4):450–7. doi: 10.1001/archinte.166.4.450. PMID: 16505266

39. Brismee JM, Paige RL, Chyu MC, et al. Group and home-based tai chi in elderly subjects with knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2007 Feb;21(2):99–111. PMID: 17264104

40. Bronfort G, Maiers MJ, Evans RL, et al. Supervised exercise, spinal manipulation, and home exercise for chronic low back pain: a randomized clinical trial. Spine J. 2011 Jul;11(7):585–98. doi: 10.1016/j.spinee.2011.01.036. PMID: 21622028

41. Brosseau L, Wells G, Marchand S, et al. Randomized controlled trial on low level laser therapy (LLLT) in the treatment of osteoarthritis (OA) of the hand. Lasers in Surgery & Medicine. 2005 Mar;36(3):210–9. doi: 10.1002/lsm.20137. PMID: 15704096

42. Brouwer RW, van Raaij TM, Verhaar JA, et al. Brace treatment for osteoarthritis of the knee: a prospective randomized multi-centre trial. Osteoarthritis & Cartilage. 2006 Aug;14(8):777–83. PMID: 16563810

43. Buckelew SP, Conway R, Parker J, et al. Biofeedback/relaxation training and exercise interventions for fibromyalgia: a prospective trial. Arthritis Care Res. 1998 Jun;11(3):196–209. PMID: 9782811

44. Cakir S, Hepguler S, Ozturk C, et al. Efficacy of therapeutic ultrasound for the management of knee osteoarthritis: a randomized, controlled, and double-blind study. American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation. 2014 May;93(5):405–12. PMID: CN-00992582 UPDATE

45. Carlsson CP, Sjolund BH. Acupuncture for chronic low back pain: a randomized placebo-controlled study with long-term follow-up. Clin J Pain. 2001 Dec;17(4):296–305. PMID: 11783809

46. Cash E, Salmon P, Weissbecker I, et al. Mindfulness meditation alleviates fibromyalgia symptoms in women: results of a randomized clinical trial. Ann Behav Med. 2015 Jun;49(3):319–30. doi: 10.1007/s12160-014-9665-0

47. Castel A, Cascon R, Padrol A, et al. Multicomponent cognitive-behavioral group therapy with hypnosis for the treatment of fibromyalgia: long-term outcome. J Pain. 2012 Mar;13(3):255–65. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2011.11.005. Epub 2 Jan 29

48. Castel A, Castro S, Fontova R, et al. Body mass index and response to a multidisciplinary treatment of fibromyalgia. Rheumatol Int. 2015 Feb;35(2):303–14. doi: 10.1007/s00296-014-3096-x. Epub 2014 Aug 1

49. Castel A, Fontova R, Montull S, et al. Efficacy of a multidisciplinary fibromyalgia treatment adapted for women with low educational levels: a randomized controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2013 Mar;65(3):421–31. doi: 10.1002/acr.21818. PMID: 22899402

50. Castien RF, van der Windt DA, Grooten A, et al.
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51. Castro-Sanchez AM, Mataran-Penarrocha GA, Arroyo-Morales M, et al. Effects of myofascial release techniques on pain, physical function, and postural stability in patients with fibromyalgia: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil. 2011 Sep;25(9):800–13. doi: 10.1177/0269215511399476. PMID: 21673013

52. Castro-Sanchez AM, Mataran-Penarrocha GA, Granero-Molina J, et al. Benefits of massage-myofascial release therapy on pain, anxiety, quality of sleep, depression, and quality of life in patients with fibromyalgia. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2011;2011:561753. doi: 10.1155/2011/561753. PMID: 21234327

53. Cedraschi C, Desmeules J, Rapiti E, et al. Fibromyalgia: a randomised, controlled trial of a treatment programme based on self management. Ann Rheum Dis. 2004 Mar;63(3):290–6.

54. Chen TW, Lin CW, Lee CL, et al. The efficacy of shock wave therapy in patients with knee osteoarthritis and popliteal cyamella. Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences. 2014 Jul;30(7):362–70. doi: 10.1016/j.kjms.2014.03.006. PMID: 24924842

55. Cherkin DC, Anderson ML, Sherman KJ, et al. Two-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Clinical Trial of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction vs Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or Usual Care for Chronic Low Back Pain. JAMA. 2017 Feb 14;317(6):642–4. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.17814. PMID: 28196244

56. Cherkin DC, Eisenberg D, Sherman KJ, et al. Randomized trial comparing traditional Chinese medical acupuncture, therapeutic massage, and self-care education for chronic low back pain. Arch Intern Med. 2001 Apr 23;161(8):1081–8. PMID: 11322842

57. Cherkin DC, Sherman KJ, Avins AL, et al. A randomized trial comparing acupuncture, simulated acupuncture, and usual care for chronic low back pain. Arch Intern Med. 2009 May 11;169(9):858–66. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.65. PMID: 19433697

58. Cherkin DC, Sherman KJ, Balderson BH, et al. Effect of mindfulness-based stress reduction vs cognitive behavioral therapy or usual care on back pain and functional limitations in adults with chronic low back pain: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016 Mar 22-29;315(12):1240–9. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.2323. PMID: 27002445

59. Cherkin DC, Sherman KJ, Kahn J, et al. A comparison of the effects of 2 types of massage and usual care on chronic low back pain: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Jul 5;155(1):1–9. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-155-1-201107050-00002. PMID: 21727288

60. Chiu TT, Ng JK, Walther-Zhang B, et al. A randomized controlled trial on the efficacy of intermittent cervical traction for patients with chronic neck pain. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2011 Sep;25(9):814–22. doi: 10.1177/0269215511399590. PMID: 21427150

61. Cho JH, Nam DH, Kim KT, et al. Acupuncture with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) versus acupuncture or NSAIDs alone for the treatment of chronic neck pain: an assessor-blinded randomised controlled pilot study. Acupuncture in Medicine. 2014 Feb;32(1):17–23. doi: 10.1136/acupmed-2013-010410. PMID: 24171895

62. Cho YJ, Song YK, Cha YY, et al. Acupuncture for chronic low back pain: a multicenter, randomized, patient-assessor blind, sham-controlled clinical trial. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013 Apr 01;38(7):549–57. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0b013e318275e601. PMID: 23026870

63. Chow RT, Heller GZ, Barnsley L. The effect of 300 mW, 830 nm laser on chronic neck pain: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Pain. 2006 Sep;124(1-2):201–10. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2006.05.018. PMID: 16806710

64. Clarke-Jenssen AC, Mengshoel AM, Strumse YS, et al. Effect of a fibromyalgia rehabilitation programme in warm versus cold climate: a randomized controlled study. J Rehabil Med. 2014 Jul;46(7):676–83. doi: 10.2340/16501977-1819

65. Correa JB, Costa LO, Oliveira NT, et al. Effects of the carrier frequency of interferential current on pain modulation and central hypersensitivity in people with chronic nonspecific low back pain: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. European Journal of Pain. 2016 11;20(10):1653–66. doi: 10.1002/ejp.889. PMID: 27150263.*

66. Costa LO, Maher CG, Latimer J, et al. Motor control exercise for chronic low back pain: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Phys Ther. 2009 Dec;89(12):1275–86. doi: 10.2522/ptj.20090218. PMID: 19892856

67. Da Costa D, Abrahamowicz M, Lowensteyn I, et al. A randomized clinical trial of an individualized home-based exercise programme for women with fibromyalgia. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2005 Nov;44(11):1422–7. Epub 2005 Jul 19

68. de Araujo Cazotti L, Jones A, Roger-Silva D, et al. Effectiveness of the Pilates Method in the Treatment of Chronic Mechanical Neck Pain: a Randomized Controlled Trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2018 Sep;99(9):1740–6. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2018.04.018. PMID: 29752907.*

69. de Rooij M, van der Leeden M, Cheung J, et al. Efficacy of Tailored Exercise Therapy on Physical Functioning in Patients With Knee Osteoarthritis and Comorbidity: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2017 Jun;69(6):807–16. doi: 10.1002/acr.23013. PMID: 27563831.*

70. Dias RC, Dias JM, Ramos LR. Impact of an exercise and walking protocol on quality of life for elderly people with OA of the knee. Physiotherapy Research International. 2003;8(3):121–30. PMID: 14533368

71. Dilek B, Gozum M, Sahin E, et al. Efficacy of paraffin bath therapy in hand osteoarthritis: a single-blinded randomized controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2013 Apr;94(4):642–9. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2012.11.024. PMID: 23187044

72. Djavid GE, Mehrdad R, Ghasemi M, et al. In chronic low back pain, low level laser therapy combined with exercise is more beneficial than exercise alone in the long term: a randomised trial. Aust J Physiother. 2007;53(3):155–60. PMID: 17725472

73. Ebadi S, Ansari NN, Naghdi S, et al. The effect of continuous ultrasound on chronic non-specific low back pain: a single blind placebo-controlled randomized trial. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2012 Oct 02;13:192. doi: 10.1186/1471-2474-13-192. PMID: 23031570

74. Ebneshahidi NS, Heshmatipour M, Moghaddami A, et al. The effects of laser acupuncture on chronic tension headache-a randomised controlled trial. Acupuncture in Medicine. 2005 Mar;23(1):13–8. PMID: 15844435

75. Essex H, Parrott S, Atkin K, et al. An economic evaluation of Alexander Technique lessons or acupuncture sessions for patients with chronic neck pain: A randomized trial (ATLAS). PLoS ONE 2017;12(12):e0178918. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0178918. PMID: 29211741.*

76. Ettinger WH, Jr., Burns R, Messier SP, et al. A randomized trial comparing aerobic exercise and resistance exercise with a health education program in older adults with knee osteoarthritis. The Fitness Arthritis and Seniors Trial (FAST). JAMA. 1997 Jan 1;277(1):25–31. PMID: 8980206

77. Falcγo DM, Sales L, Leite JR, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain. 2008;16(3):133–40.

78. Fary RE, Carroll GJ, Briffa TG, et al. The effectiveness of pulsed electrical stimulation in the management of osteoarthritis of the knee: results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, repeated-measures trial. Arthritis & Rheumatism. 2011 May;63(5):1333–42. doi: 10.1002/art.30258. PMID: 21312188

79. Ferreira ML, Ferreira PH, Latimer J, et al. Comparison of general exercise, motor control exercise and spinal manipulative therapy for chronic low back pain: A randomized trial. Pain. 2007 Sep;131(1-2):31–7. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2006.12.008. PMID: 17250965

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83. Garcia AN, Costa L, Hancock MJ, et al. McKenzie Method of Mechanical Diagnosis and Therapy was slightly more effective than placebo for pain, but not for disability, in patients with chronic non-specific low back pain: a randomised placebo controlled trial with short and longer term follow-up. British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2018 May;52(9):594–600. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2016-097327. PMID: 28701365.*

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89. Gowans SE, deHueck A, Voss S, et al. Effect of a randomized, controlled trial of exercise on mood and physical function in individuals with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. 2001 Dec;45(6):519–29

90. Groessl EJ, Liu L, Chang DG, et al. Yoga for Military Veterans with Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial. Am J Prev Med. 2017 Nov;53(5):599–608. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2017.05.019. PMID: 28735778

91. Gudavalli MR, Cambron JA, McGregor M, et al. A randomized clinical trial and subgroup analysis to compare flexion-distraction with active exercise for chronic low back pain. Eur Spine J. 2006 Jul;15(7):1070–82. doi: 10.1007/s00586-005-0021-8. PMID: 16341712

92. Gur A, Sarac AJ, Cevik R, et al. Efficacy of 904 nm gallium arsenide low level laser therapy in the management of chronic myofascial pain in the neck: a double-blind and randomize-controlled trial. Lasers Surg Med. 2004;35(3):229–35. doi: 10.1002/lsm.20082. PMID: 15389743

93. Gusi N, Tomas-Carus P, Hakkinen A, et al. Exercise in waist-high warm water decreases pain and improves health-related quality of life and strength in the lower extremities in women with fibromyalgia. Arthritis Rheum. 2006 Feb 15;55(1):66–73. doi: 10.1002/art.21718. PMID: 16463415

94. Haake M, Muller HH, Schade-Brittinger C, et al. German Acupuncture Trials (GERAC) for chronic low back pain: randomized, multicenter, blinded, parallel-group trial with 3 groups. Arch Intern Med. 2007 Sep 24;167(17):1892–8. doi: 10.1001/archinte.167.17.1892. PMID: 17893311

95. Haas M, Vavrek D, Peterson D, Polissar N, Neradilek MB.
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96. Harkapaa K, Jarvikoski A, Mellin G, et al. A controlled study on the outcome of inpatient and outpatient treatment of low back pain. Part I. Pain, disability, compliance, and reported treatment benefits three months after treatment. Scand J Rehabil Med. 1989;21(2):81–9. PMID: 2526364

97. Hegedus B, Viharos L, Gervain M, et al. The effect of low-level laser in knee osteoarthritis: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Photomedicine and Laser Surgery. 2009 Aug;27(4):577–84. doi: 10.1089/pho.2008.2297. PMID: 19530911

98. Helminen EE, Sinikallio SH, Valjakka AL, et al. Effectiveness of a cognitive-behavioural group intervention for knee osteoarthritis pain: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation. 2015 Sep;29(9):868–81. doi: 10.1177/0269215514558567. PMID: 25413168

99. Herman PM, Anderson ML, Sherman KJ, et al. Cost-effectiveness of Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction Versus Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or Usual Care Among Adults With Chronic Low Back Pain. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2017 Oct 15;42(20):1511–20. doi: 10.1097/BRS.0000000000002344. PMID: 28742756

100. Highland KB, Schoomaker A, Rojas W, et al. Benefits of the Restorative Exercise and Strength Training for Operational Resilience and Excellence Yoga Program for Chronic Low Back Pain in Service Members: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial.[Erratum appears in Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2018 Apr;99(4):777; PMID: 29580463]. Archives of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 2018 01;99(1):91–8. doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2017.08.473. PMID: 28919191.*

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